In the 19th century, France experienced significant political and social changes, marked by the rise and fall of various governments. The period began with the aftermath of the French Revolution and included the establishment of the First French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte. Following his defeat in 1815, France transitioned through the Restoration, the July Monarchy, and the Second Republic. Culturally, 19th-century France was a hub of artistic and intellectual movements. The era saw the emergence of Romanticism, which emphasized emotion and individualism, and later Realism, focusing on everyday life. Notable figures included writers like Victor Hugo and artists like Édouard Manet, who shaped the cultural landscape of the time.