Arnold Toynbee was a British historian and philosopher, best known for his work on the rise and fall of civilizations. Born in 1889, he studied at Oxford University and later became a prominent figure in historical analysis. His most famous work, "A Study of History," examines how societies respond to challenges and adapt over time. Toynbee proposed that civilizations grow through a cycle of challenge and response, where successful societies learn and innovate, while those that fail to adapt decline. His ideas have influenced various fields, including history, sociology, and political science, making him a significant figure in understanding human development.